Crawl Before You Walk

The following work is part of a forthcoming partnership public art project (working title Crawl Before you Walk) between Architects for Peace, RMIT Public Art and one Melbourne University's architectural design studio. Works will be located beneath the Kings Way overpass, at the corner of City Road, Queensbridge Road and Kings Way, to be held on one night only on Monday 23 October, coinciding with the Walk 21 Conference.



“IMAGES DETACHED FROM every aspect of life merge into a common stream, and the former unity of life is lost forever. Apprehended in a partial way, reality unfolds in a new generality as a pseudo-world apart, solely as an object of contemplation…The spectacle in its generality is a concrete inversion of life, and, as such, the autonomous movement of non-life.” G. Debord (1967)

Jaguar Lacroix is a new media artist whose work considers the paradox of modern life. She is concerned with the abject and the detached and the connection between this detachment and the necessarily irreconcilable notion of our complicity or culpability in this hopelessness.

Abattoir of Dreams presents two concepts set in the non-place beneath the appropriately named Kings Way overpass, at the back of the Crown Casino that is the built form of government’s addiction to gambling both metaphorically and financially. In Victoria, gambling is approaching 18% of State revenue.

Abattoir of Dreams – detail. Tattooed Bodies.

In the first work, the advertorial text of state sanctioned gambling along with its inherent risk of addiction is stamped literally onto the bodies of the state victim, here represented as a conveyer belt of gutted and denuded carcasses (the bodies of ‘dumb’ animals) – submitting to their role of transformation into state revenue. Taunts eliciting the realization of the dream of power inscribed on the front of the casino edifice (the processing plant) constitute lures of promise, but only via participation: – play the game, go all in, test your skill. Worship at the altar of the golden calf and you will be crowned, king – for a day - in CrownCasinoNeverLand, a day that lasts forever. The consumer, having swallowed the fetishised lie, becomes in turn the consumed product of the state machinery. Machinery rigged to guarantee the continuing prosperity of the larger hegemony and the power of the invisible few. Hooked on the promise, revolution will never cross your mind.

“ THE WHOLE OF LIFE of those societies in which modern conditions of production prevail presents itself as an immense accumulation of spectacles. All that was once directly lived has become mere representation.”

Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle. Ch. 1. Separation Perfected. p. 12. 1967 Buchet-Castel

(2) Abattoir of Dreams

As a culmination to this apparition of violence / mis en scène of horror, one may as well coin a term – glamourhorror: The spectacle of excess co-existing with the reality of death. We come to the Event as commodity: The representation and reproduction of the ‘other world’ as spectacle. The destroyed structure of a city, a symbol of human habitation and industry, existing in parallel time to the modern city we inhabit is projected onto a structure of permanence - a city overpass. The viewer is invited to comprehend the meaning this collision of realities might for them evoke. A sow, offensive to at least two religions is left to swing over the abyss of meaning and the concrete rubble – a lasting symbol to the barbarity of war and the violence of which we collectively remain capable.

“ THE WORLD THE SPECTACLE holds up to view is at once here and elsewhere; it is the world of the commodity ruling over all lived experience. The commodity world is thus shown as it really is, for its logic is one with men’s estrangement from one another and from the sum total of what they produce”. p 26. Ch. 2. The Commodity As Spectacle. Ibid

See Jaguar’s work and the work of RMIT and Melbourne University students for one night only, Monday 23rd October, below the Kings Way overpass, at the corner of City Road, Queensbridge Road and Kings Way, as part of the Walk 21 Conference.

Climate Refugees: Global Responsibility in a Market Society

By Sarah Bridges, architecture student, Melbourne University, 2006

Subject: Environmental Design - Market Economy and Market Society
Subject coordinator: Dr Darko Radovic
Studio leader: Beatriz C. Maturana

1.0 INTRODUCTION

“By recognising environmental refugees you recognise the problem. By recognising the problem you start on the road to accepting responsibility and implementing solutions”(1)

(Jean Lambert, Greens MEP 2002)

The following essay attempts to not only continue, but provoke discussion on global responsibilities in terms of sustainable development in a market society. The plight of climate refugees from around the world is exemplary of a history of neglect in the global civil society. This neglect has compounded from economic, social and environmental inequalities, which has resulted in unstable futures for a predicted 150 million people by the year 2050 (2). This situation was caused due to problems not only in political and legislative arenas, but also in the inherent understanding of the individual and the greater mass about what part they play in the “sustainable world”. Andrew Simms, co-author of, “Environmental Refugees – The case for recognition”, 2003, comments that “we face a ‘homes-for-lifestyles’ scandal, in which people in poor, vulnerable countries pay with their homes for the lifestyles of the rich”. It is therefore only by changing neo-liberal or industrialized human nature, through implementation of political and legislative decisions in favour of repairing the situation, that a solution can be found. Thus the rich and poor can still live with equal access to the worlds basic resources, such as clean air, water, and most importantly solid ground to build their lives, families, communities and cultural identities on. See Fig 1.

2.0 GLOBAL INEQUALITIES

According to the United Nation Development Program (UNDP) Human development report 2005, although poverty has been reduced in some parts of the world, 25% of the world’s population is still stuck in severe poverty, and the gap between rich and poor is continually widening.(3) (See Fig. 2) When the world’s global economy is currently trading over $25 trillion, this begs the question of why are there still shameful inequalities and where are the national and international policies to prevent the economic, social and environmental inequalities, which are leading to unstable futures for over a quarter of the world’s population?

2.1 Economic Inequalities - Globalisation

Globalisation has been the major factor most analysts use as reasoning for the divide. It is therefore important to get an understanding of this term when discussing global economic inequalities. Sociologist Sasskia Sassen, from the University of Chicago, writes about globalisation and how it is a term “happily circulating in today’s world, without any conceptual underpinnings”. She argues that “globalization usually refers to international institutions that shape economic, political, and social systems at the national level” (4), the shaping methods used often do not cohere with the aims of the global civil community. It can be argued that such a state of inequality and uneven spread of power between the corporate international organisation and the governments of the world has arisen because the world is currently guided by “neo-liberalists’ ideology in an industrial global world.” (5) Morrison discusses global management as being guided by the Neo-liberalist ideology. From his definition, it is interesting to draw comparisons with the underlying definition of a Market society.

Neo-liberalism - Value is equal to price

- Value of species to be saved from extinction by what must be paid for their protection

- Does not recognize limits to market forces, but only to the efficacy of government action.(6)

Market Society- The value of everything is measured by what people are prepared, or able to pay for it.(7)

It seems therefore that perhaps the solutions lie therein, that being a champion of globalisation (i.e., successful international organisation) and turning a blind eye to global equity concerns should be the target of legislative moves. This is supported by Berkeley economist Pranab Bardhan, who calls for international institutions such as the World Trade Organization to regulate the behaviour of international corporations. Bardhan said, “International organizations provide a crucial mediating factor between countries that have unequal resources and unequal bargaining power.” (8) Through the implementation of policy there is a possibility of the “don’t beat them join them” mentality, where the world’s legislative powers can beat the independent organisations at their game by using the networks and rules set up globally in favour of the social and ecological environments and not the economic divide.

These economic inequalities are the catalyst for the butterfly effect on many detrimental problems within the world today. They lead to social and environmental inequalities which is where the real material and psychological detriment is felt.

Social Inequalities – Diminished Quality of Life and Life expectancy

Plato wrote in the fifth century BC warning Athenian lawmakers of the threat posed by extreme inequality. “There should exist among the citizens neither extreme poverty nor again excessive wealth, for both are productive of great evil.”(9)

Interestingly, the hero of neo-liberalism Adam Smith, agreed, stating, “No society can be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater part of members are poor and miserable. Relative poverty is a state where all members of society should have an income sufficient to enable them to appear in public ‘without shame’ ” (10). These statements are important in defining why social inequality is a major issue to be faced and how although social inequalities have been faced for centuries they should not be simply accepted. A blind eye has often been turned by the global civil society and thus continuation of the poverty cycle for many has persisted. See Fig 3. Statistics show that this has meant not only an economic gap but also a social gap, both playing the game of the chicken and the egg…which one came first?

2.3 Environmental Inequalities – Future Instability

“Ironically, those least responsible for Global warming or poorer nations are generally more vulnerable to the consequences of global warming. These nations tend to be more dependent on climate-sensitive sectors, such as subsistence agriculture, and lack the resources to buffer themselves against the changes that global warming may bring. “(11)

Global warming emissions of a country in comparison to its average life expectancy are direct indicators of Environmental stability in a country. Countries such as Australia having the highest per capita CO2 emissions at 1.4% of the worlds emissions, have a longer life expectancy, lower poverty gap and better future living opportunities in comparison with all the nations of the pacific islands, creating 23 times less emissions than Australia at 0.06% (12). Yet, it is these nations who will pay the highest price, if something isn’t done to curb our energy hungry and responsibility shy nation.

Whilst it is argued that through the economic divide, environmental inequalities have resulted, perhaps it should be looked at form another angle where the result has driven the cause. Andrew Simms’ book, “Ecological Debt – the health of the planet and the wealth of nations”, describes the paradox of how the global wealth gap was built on ecological debts, which the world’s poorest are now having to pay for. He suggests that the developed nations have exported their skill to less developed countries as economic immigrants, to find wealth and prosperity in an under legislated environment. They have taken advantage of lower laws on environmental protection and directly exported the financial gain back to the developed countries. All at the same time as strengthening the border controls of who is able to enter in their own more developed lands, as perhaps unskilled immigrants also looking for economic opportunity. Thus, the only benefit seen by the indigenous owners in less developed countries is a rise in production and export in the face of their own ecological demise. He goes on to describe the possibility of an “ecological debt”.

“Imagine opening a bank letter at breakfast to find that instead of your normal overdraft, you had an ecological debt that threatened the planet. If the whole world wanted to live like people in the United Kingdom we would need the resources of three planets like Earth. If the United States was our model the number would be five. Millions of us in the West are running up huge ecological debts: from the amount of oil and coal that we burn to heat our houses and run our cars, to what we consume and the waste that we create, the impact of our lifestyles is felt worldwide. Whilst these debts go unpaid, millions more living in poverty in the majority world suffer the burden of paying dubious foreign financial debts. “ (13)

This brings us to the case of Climate Refugees from around the world. People from less developed nations, who are directly affected by the detriment the environment has taken, and are still waiting for responsibility to be taken and the ecological debt to be paid by those from more developed countries owing.

3.0 Climate Refugees – Recognition and Responsibility

Climate Refugees are “Inhabitants from countries where the impacts of Climate Change, which include increased droughts, desertification, and sea level rise, along with more frequent occurrence of extreme weather events, inhibit their future social, economic and political survival.”(14) Factors such as; Food security, Water security, Increase in Vector and water borne diseases, Infrastructure and Land losses and Sea Level Rise are all too quickly arising in many less developed or environmentally unfortunate countries. Recent estimates suggest, “25 million people worldwide were uprooted for environmental reasons – compared to 22 million displaced by civil wars and persecution” (15). Another estimate suggests that by the year 2050, there could be 150 million climate refugees needing to be displaced. (16) See Fig 4.

Environmental refugees are currently not officially recognised and protected by the international community in a world of growing interdependency – where environmental problems have no respect for borders and nation states. The paranoia of wealthy countries is deeply ironic. Their carbon intensive lifestyles are driving global warming, which is likely to become the largest single factor forcing people to flee their homes around the world. There is an obligation on the nation’s most responsible for historic greenhouse gas emissions, to make sure that environmental refugees are recognised and protected. However, the Geneva Convention on Refugees contains no explicit clause to acknowledge their plight. Without a planned approach to managing the environmental refugee crisis, there will be chaos, avoidable suffering and a backlash against innocent victims of global environmental degradation.

This problem has already been faced in Australia and was rapidly denied in 2000 when the Tuvaluan government appealed to both Australia and New Zealand to take Tuvaluan residents effectively as Climate Refugees.

4.0 Case Study – Tuvalu

Tuvalu is a nation located in the pacific islands, made up of 9 coral atolls. Its population is approximately 11,000, and has an altitude of 3-5m above sea level. It has no major industry and does not have a large tourism industry. Its largest money making venture at present is the leasing of a www domain name .tv, which earns the country several million dollars a year. It is a struggling country in the best of time in today’s Market Society and yet now, has been put in the spot light for another reason. Its major claim to fame is that, it will be the first country to sink due to rising sea levels as a result of global warming. See Fig 5.

The appeal by the Tuvaluan government in 2000 was shamefully denied by Australia’s Phillip Ruddock, the Immigration Minister at the time, who stated that accepting environmental refugees from Tuvalu would be “discriminatory”.(17) Fortunately, New Zealand, a country of lesser size, and lower economic stability, put its hand up to help. Setting an example for the rest of the world, unfortunately however, unmoving to its closest neighbour. In March 2002, Prime Minister Koloa Talake announced that he was considering legal action against the world’s worst polluters, the nations most responsible for carbon dioxide emissions at the International Court of Justice.(18) And today in 2006, there is still yet to be discussion on a new immigration category within Australia. This example shows the urgency of diplomatic action needed to accommodate for the bleak future of climate refugees. It is merely a taste of the “Chaos” which many writing on Climate Refugees predict if the global civil society does not own up to its environmental responsibilities.

5.0 Global Responsibility

Andrew Bartlett of the Australian Democrats suggested in 2002 that if Australia considered its contribution of 1-2% of the global greenhouse gasses, Australia would see that it is directly responsible for roughly 1.2 to 1.4 million displaced people due to climate change. (19) See Fig 6

There is further need for a logical discussion to take place on global responsibility in the future. The ratio of emissions to immigration is one particular category dealing with climate refugees which is in effect only a short term answer to a long term problem. World leaders need to combine efforts, and put the issue on the table. There has already been response from some of the most powerful in regard to the effects climate has on immigration patterns from Tony Blair and Bill Clinton (see Fig. 7). However, it is obvious, that in today’s “market Society” there is greater need for legislation and policy making. While the immediate problem about to be faced by 150 million people needs an answer, perhaps more urgent is the answer to how we treat our global environment, and when we are going to stop abusing it. This was best put by the Tuvaluan Governor-General Sir Tomasi Puapua, at the 57th session of the UN General Assembly in September 2002,

“Taking us as environmental refugees, is not what Tuvalu is after in the long run. We want the island of Tuvalu and our nation to remain permanently and not be submerged as a result of greed and uncontrolled consumption of industrialized countries. We want our children to grow up the way we grew up in our own island and in our own culture.”

5.0 Solutions

When it comes to a solution to the problem it is not just a matter of small change. In a market society value is driven by price, and how much people are prepared to pay for something with money. Instead, the emphasis should be on whether the environment is able to pay for something. Perhaps it may take what Lester Brown describes as ‘launching the environmental revolution’ for any changes to fully assist in the possibility of a sustainable future.

“There is no precedent for the change in prospect. Building an environmentally sustainable future depends on restructuring the global economy, major shifts in human reproductive behaviour, and dramatic changes in values and lifestyles. Doing all this quickly adds up to a revolution, one defined by the need to restore and preserve the earth’s environmental systems. If this environmental revolution succeeds, it will rank with the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions as one of the great economic and social transformations in human history” (20)

The following are a number of solutions put forth for dealing with the issues of Climate Refugees:

- Discussion on a political level regarding plight of Climate refugees

- Opening of a new category of Immigration by the immigration department directly related to climate disadvantage. (Australia has a disproportionate responsibility for creating them, and hence an onus to officially recognise them as a separate category of refugee.) (21)

- Recognition of responsibility directly regarding emissions affecting other countries.

- Payment of ecological debt to those owing through political discussion

- Assessment of causes behind climate Refugees, and collection of data, to make the problem a reality in the political arena

- Education to the public about the plight of Climate Refugees

- Increase the Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) from Australia to the United Nations target agreed upon in 1970, to 0.7% of the Gross National Income (GNI). Australia currently gives 0.41% (22)

Recommendations in Simms’s book for dealing with ecological debt include: (21)

1. Legal recognition and protection under international law for environmental refugees displaced by climate change and environmental degradation.

2. Rich countries to pay the cost of the rest of the world having to adapt to global warming.

3. Trade sanctions to be used against non-Kyoto states such as the United States and Australia

4. Cancellation of the unplayable conventional debts of poor countries in the face of rich countries' ecological debts

5. Gas guzzling urban 4x4 cars to carry environmental health warnings like cigarette packets.

6. The end of government subsidies to fossil fuels

7. In the light of global warming, a G8 reassessment of the resources necessary to meet the international poverty reduction targets of the Millennium Development Goals

8. A global framework to follow the current Kyoto Protocol based on the principle of equal, per person greenhouse gas emissions entitlements and cutting emissions to a level to stop dangerous climate change (known as contraction and convergence)

9. Compulsory therapy for key decision makers to help them deal with their denial about the scale of action necessary to deal with climate change.

10. A new model of economic development in which the acid test will be whether any policy increases or decreases human vulnerability to climate change.

6.0 DEFINITION AND POSITION OF TERMS

Globalization in terms of sustainable development:

“Globalization of industrial society includes not only the globalization of factories, but the globalization of pollution, of weapons production, of western technocratic management and its communications infrastructure”. (24)

Global Responsibility:

“By recognizing the problem you start on the road to accepting responsibility and implementing solutions” (25)

Sustainable Development:

A holistic approach to the process of development. Encompassing issues to do with environment, society, economy, politics and culture, both today and in the future

“Use of an area within its capacity to sustain its cultural or natural significance, and ensure that the benefits of the use to present generations do not diminish the potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Use of and visits to areas must contribute to social and economic well-being of the nations and its constituents without detriment to the heritage resources; and the integrity of the heritage resources is never jeopardized” (26)

Market Society:

When first unravelling the term of ‘market society’ it is difficult to ignore the underlying fact that these are two contradictory terms. “Market” has roots in economic benefit and competition, whilst society has deeper meanings attached with human ethics and behaviour, thus conflict can only arise. A basic definition of a ‘market society’ likens it to a social political structure similar to the free market style of capitalism (Adam Smith), whilst also referring to government instituted and or controlled forms of the market, also known as state capitalism (27). However, this is still quite broad. A real position on the phrase “market society” comes through its comparison with the phrase “market economy”

“When the market is no longer servant but becomes the master and the value of everything is measured by what people are prepared, or able to pay for it, we have not only a market economy but also a market society….”When the logic of market transactions invades most spheres of social life, everything becomes a commodity and ultimately nothing is worthy of respect” (28)

A market needs a society and vice versa, they need to co-exist, however, in the end, the market feeds off the society, whilst the society is merely facilitated by the market. The market can be manipulated but mostly importantly, it manipulates people.

Climate Refugees:

A report by Essam El Hinnawi in 1985, for the UN’s environment program defines climate refugees as

A category of persons “who have been forced to leave their traditional habitat” because of a marked environmental disruption “that jeopardized their existence and/or seriously affected the quality of their life.” (29)

Neo-liberalism:

- Global management is guided by neo-liberalist ideology

- Value is equal to price

- Value of species to be saved from extinction by what must be paid for their protection

- Cost of pollution by the price paid for emission entitlements, sold by those who pollute less to those who pollute more

- Does not recognize limits to market forces, but only to the efficacy of government action. (30)

Matrix of Antipodes:

Lines of social tension, representing deep fissures in industrial civilization. (31)

Figure 1

Figure 2

Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2005, http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05_complete.pdf

Figure 3

Source: International Labour Organisation
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5059106.stm

Figure 4

Source: Myers, N., 1994, “Environmental Refugees; a crisis in the making”, in People & the Planet, 3(4)

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Source: A citizens guide to Climate Refugees”, 2005 www.foe.org.au/download/fullcitizensguide.pdf

Footnotes
1. “A citizens guide to Climate Refugees”, www.foe.org.au/download/fullcitizensguide.pdf

2. Myers, N. “Environmental Refugees; a crisis in the making”, in People & the Planet, 3(4), 1994.

3. UNDP Human Development Report 2005, http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05_complete.pdf

4. Sassen, S., 1998, “Globalization and its Discontents – Essays on the new mobility of people and money”, The new Press, New York, USA

5. Morrison, R “Ecological Democracy”, Boston, MA, 1995 p.70

6. Ibid, p.85

7. John Nevile, The Australia Institute, 2000

8. Joshua Skov, Responsibility in the global Age

9. UNDP Human Development Report 2005, p.51

10. Ibid, p.51

11.“A citizens guide to Climate Refugees”, www.foe.org.au/download/fullcitizensguide.pdf

12. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 2000

13. Simms A., 2005 “Ecological debt, The Health of the Planet and the Wealth of Nations”, Pluto Press, U.K.

14. “A citizens guide to Climate Refugees”, www.foe.org.au/download/fullcitizensguide.pdf

15. Taylor, S, “Call to protect environmental refugees: crisis set to grow”, 2003, http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/news_envirorefugees.aspx

16. Myers, N. “Environmental Refugees; a crisis in the making”, in People & the Planet, 3(4), 1994.

17. The Australia Institute, Screw You Tuvalu, Media Release, October 14, 2001

18. Consibee M., Simms A., “Environmental Refugees –The case for recognition”, 2003, New Economics Foundation, UK

19. A citizens guide to Climate Refugees”, www.foe.org.au/download/fullcitizensguide.pdf

20. Lester R. Brown, 1992, “Launching the Environmental Revolution, Sate of the world: A worldwatch institute Report on Progress toward a Sustainable Society”, New York, W.W.Norton, p.174

21. A citizens guide to Climate Refugees”, www.foe.org.au/download/fullcitizensguide.pdf

22. A citizens guide to Climate Refugees”, www.foe.org.au/download/fullcitizensguide.pdf

23. Simms A., 2005 “Ecological debt, The Health of the Planet and the Wealth of Nations”, Pluto Press, U.K.

24. Morrison, R “Ecological Democracy”, Boston, MA, 1995

25. Jean Lambert, Greens MEP 2002

26. www.deh.gov.au/soe/2001/heritage/glossary.html

27. www.wikipedia.com

28. The Australia Institute http://www.tai.org.au/Newsletter_Files/NEwsletters/nl24.pdf#search=’market%society’

29. Consibee M., Simms A., “Environmental Refugees – The case for recognition”, 2003, New Economics Foundation, London

30. Morrison, R “Ecological Democracy”, Boston, MA, 1995, p.85

31. Morrison, R “Ecological Democracy”, Boston, MA, 1995 p.70

Healthy Living Centres as a Way to Promote Sustainable Communities

By Mark Lam
(Student work. Presented at the University of Melbourne - Environmental Design)

The term Market Society in this discussion refers to a capitalist market economy that influences the exchange of goods and services in a society as well as the personal attitudes, lifestyles and political views of its people.

The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED; Brundtland, 1984) definition of sustainability states:

Sustainability is development that meets the needs of humans and other living beings of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.(1)

The core concept of a sustainable environment is that there should be clean air, fresh water, sunlight (an effective ozone layer), fertile land and an abundant diversity of species. Furthermore it should address issues regarding habitat, society, economy, politics and culture. Hence, sustainable development means the development of all the above factors in a sensitive and sensible manner for the present as well as future generations.

Social sustainability is the harmonious co-existence of people within their society and environment (2). Arnie Næss, the author of the Deep Ecology philosophy states, “The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference between big and great.” (3) A socially sustainable society does not have to be rich in terms of materialistic wealth, but has to be rich in terms of social and cultural wealth, which can be used for current and future generations.

The Market Society’s negative effect on social sustainability in cities is described by Sir Richard Rogers: “Cities are destined to house a larger and larger proportion of the world’s poor. It should become no surprise that societies and cities that lack the basic equity suffer intense social deprivation and create greater environmental damage – environmental and social issues are interlocked” (4). Most economists gauge the prosperity of a country using the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which takes into account consumer expenditure, social costs e.g. welfare and environmental cleanup costs. The GDP however, is not a clear indication of the quality of life. The World Bank conducted a survey of OECD counties and found that in countries that had its economies owned by the richest 20 percent of its population, there was a lower rate of long-term growth (5,6). A better indication of the quality of life in country is the Index of Sustainable Economic Wealth (ISEW) takes into account all other social factors (not just economic costs) which are ignored by the GDP (Figure 1 explains this concept in graphic form).







In Australia, the divide between the rich and the poor is expanding and families that fall in the mid-range income bracket are declining. (8) Indicators for this inequality include rising unemployment rates and the increase of part-time and casual jobs in the country (see Figure 2). Richard Sennett discusses some of the undesirable consequences of increasing part-time and casual employment in more detail (9). Low-income individuals are often caught in a cycle of entrenched disadvantage, as they experience a lack of power, have limited opportunities for social participation, suffer from a lack of education/or skill levels and low self-esteem. The market society’s manifestations of globalisation, post-industrialism and e-commerce have the potential to exaggerate the situation for the poor. Furthermore, differences between the rich and the poor are manifested spatially where poorer people are relegated to certain suburbs, in housing commission flats or social housing. It is important to avoid social exclusion by having urban and regional policies that provide initiatives addressing such problems so that a balanced society within a stable economy can exist. (10)


Wealth, Health and the Community
The classic symptoms of poverty include poor education, poor environment and poor health, high crime rates, unemployment, drug abuse and social isolation. These demonstrate that economic and social systems are intertwined (12).
“More than 90% of people walking about in an ordinary neighbourhood are unhealthy, judged by simple biological criteria. This ill health cannot be cured by hospitals or medicine.” (13) This statement was made in 1977 based on observations of people in the United States of America. Thirty-one years later, the situation has not changed much. Based on the 2005 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) report on Body Mass Index (BMI), 62% of males and 45% of females are classified as obese or overweight (Figure 3A and B). Diabetes is another indicator of physical health and the incidence of people suffering from this (mostly) diet related disease is high (Figure 4). Patients with diabetes are also highly susceptible to heart and vascular diseases. In terms of mental well-being, 57% suffer from depression or mood disruptive disorders, and 55% suffer from anxiety related disorders (14). Other diseases that can be prevented by improving diets, lifestyle and environments include cancer (15) and allergies (e.g. Multiple Chemical Sensitivity, MCS) (16).

The condition of our environment directly affects our health and well-being. Humans are by instinct sociable, hence a sustainable environment also means that there should be provision for human interaction and strong community support.





A proposal for Healthy Living Centres
The poor are often less healthy than the rich (19). An effective way to minimise this discrepancy would be to provide a place for poorer communities to be exposed to the concepts of health, enterprise, learning, environment and the arts. Healthy Living Centres are places for people to improve their physical, emotional and spiritual health. By addressing the issue of socially sustainable societies, current and future generations stand to benefit from its effects as these interventions will impact on the care given to the environment and in the long-term, sustainability of the economy.

Some examples of Healthy Living Centres.
Healthy Living Centres for the community already exist. Described below are a few examples of how these centres operate.

The Peckham Health Centre (The Peckham Experiment).
The Peckham Health Centre (20,21) was set up in 1935 by two doctors George Williamson and Innes Pierce who were interested in preventative social medicine for the working class. Their aim was to study the effect of environment on health in a deprived working class area. 950 families paid one shilling a week to use the club-like facilities, engaging in physical exercises, games, workshops or just relaxation. There were no set exercise programmes, and members were obliged to attend a thorough medical examination annually.
Sir William Owen designed the building in the modern style. The heart of the centre was a large swimming pool with a glazed roof. It had long stretches of windows that allowed plenty of natural light and fresh air in. Cork floor surfaces allowed children to wander around barefoot. All parts of the building were used including the roof, which was used for exercise classes. The interiors were simple, with floors supported on cruciform columns with the minimum number of internal walls, providing for a flexible space. It also provided for spontaneous social interaction in a community setting and for doctors to observe the members at play. There were no hidden, dark treatment rooms.



The centre closed in 1950 due to funding problems and because its philosophies did not fit into the National Health Service (NHS) at the time. The project became Pioneer Health Centre Ltd., and its philosophies have now been embraced by the UK government in the form of the Healthy Living Centres Initiative (22), which is well funded by the Lotteries. The architectural design of this building was purely for functional outcomes, unlike the next example, the Finsbury Health Centre.

The Finsbury Health Centre, UK.
The Finsbury Health Centre (Figure 6) is located in one of the poorest boroughs in London. As part of the Finsbury plan, the Finsbury Health Centre, designed by Berthold Lubetkin (23) (and Tecton) was opened in 1937 (24). The Finsbury Health Centre provided the opportunity for Lubetkin to use architecture as a catalyst to change people’s behaviour. The design of the centre provided plenty of natural light (using glass bricks) and ventilation. The centre had a brightly coloured scheme and cheerful murals promoting sunlight, fresh air and exercise as a way of life. The waiting rooms were arranged to provide a club-like atmosphere rather than the traditional rows of seats. Planning was flexible to cater for the ever-changing needs of the clinicians.



The services provided in the Finsbury Health Centre were of the curative approach, which also included a TB clinic, a foot clinic, a dental surgery, and a solarium, in line with the policies of the NHS at the time. The health center provided the first example of the marriage of modernist architecture with a strong social reforming agenda.

The Sacred Heart Mission, St. Kilda, Victoria Australia. (25)
The Sacred Heart Mission Centre (Figure 7) caters specifically for the poor living in St. Kilda and neighbouring suburbs. The centre has two healthcare facilities, one for a GP and another for allied health services. All services are provided on a gold coin donation basis or free if the client cannot afford it. Other programs include a soup kitchen, laundry, showers, accommodation for the homeless aged & women. Funding is obtained from government sources, charities and activities of its own opportunity shop. Full-time staff and volunteers run the facility. Administration and the GP’s clinic are located in the converted vestry, the soup kitchen café and opportunity shop are located in the converted Church Hall and the health centre and hostels are located in a converted primary school. Surrounding houses are also incorporated into the hostel complex.



The reuse of buildings is well planned for their functions. The opportunity shop, cafe and soup kitchen as well as the grounds surrounding the buildings have plenty of sunlit sitting areas conducive to social interaction. The main feature that is lacking in the whole scheme are areas for exercise or physical recreation, like those provided for the Peckham Centre, hence depriving facility users of closer social interaction. Staff at the centre organise sports programs, making use of surrounding sporting facilities, but the effect is not the same. The architecture or the buildings are reflective of the history and the main function of the site, as a Church. The Church has adapted its stock of buildings well to serve an urgent community need, showing an appropriate response to encourage social sustainability.

Borondarra Community Health Centre, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia.
The Borondarra Community Health Centre (Figure 8A) provides a large range of healthcare services to residents in the Borondarra council (26). A wide range of health and counselling services are provided. Patients are either bulk billed, or charged a consult fee according to services provided. As the size of the building is limited, there is only a small general-purpose room which can also be used for exercise activities such as yoga or pilates. The centre is one of a network of three centres, run by a not-for-profit-organisation (27), with funding through the National Health Scheme (NHS) and government grants. Workers are paid full salaries, with no volunteer workers.



Located in the old post office building, next to the town hall, and close to the train station, its central location makes it clearly visible and easily accessible. The recycling of the old post office is an environmentally friendly option. However, the consult rooms were split into traditional arrangements of little rooms of central corridors, and sometimes were not as well lit by natural light and there was a larger reliance on mechanical ventilation (Figure 8B). The arrangement of the waiting area, with its traditional rows of seating also make it feel much like the average waiting area in hospitals and clinics. The centre, although run as a not-for–profit organisation is administered very much like a business and the ideas of compassion and charity for the community, are less evident.

The ideal situation: an interconnected network of Healthy Living Centres.
Studies have shown that some mass media promotions about improving health are only partially effective (28). Another way of promoting healthy living is to create a network of Healthy Living Centres within the city, each catering for about 7000 people that provide overlapping facilities so that these can be shared between centres (29). The overlap of facilities also means people from poorer suburbs can interact with those from wealthier areas. The aim of creating a network of such centres is to promote within and between communities the culture of exercise, social or community activities, education about personal health and lifestyle habits, and to provide healthcare services. The establishment of these centres is not only a form of preventative medicine, but a tool to educate the population on lifestyle habits, which have positive effects on environment sustainability and the economy.



The kind of services provided for each centre should be specific to the requirements of the community. Factors like socio-economic differences, environmental and cultural differences need to be catered for. Some of these migrants arrive as refugees, and in most cases are poorer and have language barriers. The cultural issue of healthcare then, has to be taken into consideration. For example, among the Vietnamese, the symptoms of depression are felt in the body rather than the mind (i.e. somatisation of their depression). Their treatment would be massage rather than counselling, as is the norm for Anglo-Australians. (31) The old biocentric model of “man” (32) which is commonly used in western societies has to be made redundant, as the population becomes more and more diverse.

The ability to adapt to changes in population demographics is important. For example, provision will have to be made for an ageing population. The design of buildings should be flexible, and must take into consideration these changes (33).

Philosophical views of health, illness and well-being are always evolving (34) and the society (35) and political agendas have strong roles in influencing these (36,37). Perception by the community of the type of health-care (e.g. Allopathic, Holistic, Chinese Medicine etc.) that works is also important (38). The careful selection of services based on its effectiveness for each community is therefore crucial. These choices should be done without financial and political influences (39).

The environment in which we live in is important to our health. There are many man-made agents (such as chemicals and radiation) that can be harmful to our health. Initial exposure to these may not have any effect on our health and well-being, but in the long term can be dangerous. Saunders, in his book the “The Boiled Syndrome” explores this topic in great detail (40). The importance of location, material selection and sustainable design can be infused into the thinking of communities through the Healthy Living Centres; hence, the architecture of the centres becomes important in promoting sustainability ideas.



The aesthetics of the healthy building is expressed well by modernist architecture. Some modern architects have specifically designed their buildings with the aim of promoting health. Aalvar Alto’s Paimio Sanitarium (Figure 10), was designed specifically for tuberculosis patients, who needed plenty of sunlight and fresh air to recover. Alto designed to the smallest details, including the fittings and furniture, to aid in the patients feeling of well-being. Berthold Lubetkin’s Finsbury Health Centre is another example, which was discussed above. Architectural styles are constantly evolving, and like healthcare methods, whichever style that suits the function of providing a feeling of sustainability for that community, it should be adopted. The recycling of buildings is a good idea in terms of environmentally friendly construction practices; however, some of the limitations of older buildings (especially ones with less access to natural lighting) may hinder the promotion of feeling of healthiness. Buildings that are designed specifically for this function and which have flexible floor plans would be ideal for the use as healthy living centres.

Factors for and Against the Establishment of Healthy Living Centres
Some factors that make the idea less attractive to decision makers are that the initial outlay for setting up a network of such centres may be high, their effects are not immediate and are difficult to measure (41). As most governments make decisions based on the popularity of the decision and the voting public (which usually excludes the poor and the young) have ignored the issues of health and community, as a means of promoting a sustainable society, decisions to fund such places are hard to justify. Being sick is also good for business (42), and this means that market forces actually support the idea of being sick. Other issues relating to difficulties in setting up such centres are the staffing of such places, i.e. working in places with less prestige or lower pay, having to deal with social ‘undesirables’, the expected difficulties working with the ill informed and changing their mindsets. With most establishments dealing with the public, administrative ‘red-tape’, legal and insurance issues will increase operational costs and hinder good initiatives.

For Healthy Living Centres to be set up and maintained, there needs to be strong policies and funding. Some ways of getting the ideas across to influence decision makers about the benefits of such centres include:

• Setting up lobby groups to promote the idea to local, state and federal leaders. Infusing ideas into Local Councils and planners so that their Urban Design Strategies (43) include planning for such facilities. It is important that government bodies provide initiatives to establish such centres.
• Educate the mass population about the concept as a means to gain voter support. Starting up debates using the mass media (e.g. newspapers, television and radio programmes) are a good way to expose the concept to the public.
• Starting up prototypical centres to show that it works. Funding may have to come initially from charitable sources until government support can be obtained. The Sacred Heart Mission is a successful local example of the concept.

In terms of staffing, some volunteer work could help overcome the shortage of workers. As the proportion of retirement age people increase (44) it may be a possibility to mobilise this group of people in what Sir Richard Rogers describes as “creative citizenship”. Not only does this reduce the cost of running such places, it may provide the elderly with a sense of usefulness after retirement.



















Concluding Comments
The idea of setting up Community Health Centres is an attempt to improve the health and well being of the community both physically and mentally. For these centres to be effective, communities of lower social-economic standing in cities should be targeted (45). These centres create greater social equity. Downstream effects of this holistic approach include more sustainable environmental and economical development, and the negating of undesirable effects currently created by the market society (Figure 11). In order for this to work, governing bodies must play an active role in the promotion of such centres.





Endnotes
1. UN General Assembly document A/42/427. Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. 1987
2. Sennett, R. Capitalism and the City.
3. Næss, Arne. Ecology, Community and Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy. 1989.
4. Rogers, R. and Gumuchdjian, P. 1997. p. 7.
5. Planning Institute of Australia. 2004.
6. Stekekee (1999)
7. Rogers, R. and Gumuchdjian, 1997. p. 154.
8. Yates and Wulf, 1999 and Lloyd, Harding et al. 2000.
9. Sennett, Richard. 2001.
10. Planning Institute of Australia. 2004.
11. Sheehan, P. and Gregory, R. 1998.
12. Burdess, N. 1999. pp 149-171.
13. Alexander, C. et al. 1977. p. 252.
14. Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Health Survey, 2004-2005. 27 Feb, 2006.
15. Zaza, Briss and Harris. 2005. p143
16.www.housesforhealth.org.au. Website set up by Australian architects running a not-for-profit organization to address housing and environmental issues for people suffering from Multiple Chemical Sensitvities (MCS).
17. Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Health Survey, 2004-2005. 27 Feb, 2006.
18. Ibid.
19. Burdess, N. 1999. pp 149-171.
20. Hall, L. http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD004752.html
21. http://www.open2.net/modernity/3_6.htm
22. http://www.caerphilly.gov.uk/healthyliving/healthyliving.htm
23. Allan, J. 2002.
24. http://www.open2.net/modernity/3_5.htm
25. I would like to acknowledge Mr. Vince Corbett for showing me the facilities.
26. I would like to acknowledge Beng Lee Foo, RN for showing me the facilities.
27. http://www.iechs.com.au/
28. Zaza, S., Bris, P.A. and Harris K.W. (eds). 2005.
29. Alexander, C. et al., 1977. p. 252
30. Alexander, C. et al., 1977. p. 252
31. Julian, R. and Easthope, G. 1999. p95-114.
32. Lock, M and Gordon, D. 1988.
33. Means R., Richards, S and Smith, R. 2003. Issues regarding aged care are discussed in detail in this book.
34. Grbich, C. 1999. pp 3-13.
35. Collyer, F. 1999. pp 217-237.
36. Griggs, B. 1997.
37. Wearing, M. 1999. pp. 197-216.
38. Lam, T.P., 2001, pp.762-765.
39. Wearing, M. 1999. op.cit.
40. Saunders, T., 2002.
41. Zaza, S., Briss, P., and Harris, K. pp. 80-113.
42. Pallisco, 2006.
43. So that these proposals can be published and made into public documents such as the Knox Central Urban Design Framework, 2005.
44. Rogers, R. and Gumuchdjian. 1997. p149.
45. Rogers, R. and Gumuchdjian, P. 1997. p1-23.



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